About the Author:
Abbas Mahmoud al-Akkad (1889-1964) was a prominent Egyptian writer, poet, intellectual, critic and politician famous for his contributions to Arabic literature and culture. He was a key figure in the 20th-century Arab literary renaissance and wrote numerous books on literature, philosophy, and politics.
In his book “The Impact of the Arabs on European Civilization,” Abbas al-Akkad begins by noting his exploration of new references and recent Western studies on Eastern nations, particularly Arab ones, after World War I. He asserts that these references support his previous views on the profound Arab influence on European civilization, pointing to linguistic, historical, and literary evidence of this influence, such as the inspiration the Italian poet Dante Alighieri drew from Islamic books. He also examines the influence of European civilization on the modern Arab world, emphasizing hope for the future and optimism about achieving a balance between ancient Arab heritage and a promising future.
Who are the Arabs?
The Arabs are an ancient nation belonging to the Semitic race, which includes many peoples such as the Chaldeans, Assyrians, Canaanites, and Hebrews. Arabs share linguistic and physical characteristics with these nations. It is believed that the Arabian Peninsula is the origin of these peoples due to geographical and historical reasons. The Semitic languages are characterized by a triliteral verb structure and similar pronouns and vocabulary, indicating a common origin. The Arabian Peninsula was the cradle of the transition from a nomadic lifestyle to agriculture and urban settlement and a source of migrations to fertile regions such as Iraq and the Levant. Despite theories of the Semitic peoples’ origins in fertile areas outside the Arabian Peninsula, al-Akkad suggests that the peninsula contained fertile areas in ancient times, supported by geological and archaeological evidence of cycles of drought and fertility. Al-Akkad asserts that Arabs inhabited significant areas of the world for at least five thousand years and that the heritage Europeans benefited from in these areas is authentically Arab.
Heavenly Doctrines
This chapter discusses the Arabs’ influence in transmitting and developing heavenly doctrines to Europeans, beyond the three scriptural religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam), to include Europeans’ ancient knowledge of the heavens and celestial bodies. Arabs, who lived in clear-sky regions, were pioneers in star observation, influencing ancient civilizations like the Chaldeans and Babylonians. The division of days and weeks dates back to Semitic civilizations, and the names of weekdays in European languages bear the mark of ancient heavenly doctrines. The names of planets among the Arabs significantly impacted Europeans’ daily lives, reflecting the influence of astrology and heavenly doctrines. The Arabs’ influence extended to Europeans’ emotional and religious life, as they adopted the names of deities derived from Semitic names. This influence persisted even after the spread of Islam, with Arabic planetary names and astronomical terms continuing to be used in European languages.
Life Ethics and Conduct
This chapter explores the influence of Eastern philosophy, especially Stoic philosophy, on life ethics and conduct in Greek and Roman cultures and its continuity through the Renaissance and religious reformation. Stoicism, originally an Eastern philosophical school, influenced Greek and Roman culture and retained its importance until the Renaissance and Reformation. Stoic principles included monotheism, realism, and ethics, emphasizing self-control and willpower training. The Stoics were influenced by the authority of the tribe, religion, priesthood, state, and order, leading to a philosophy of self-restraint and tradition preservation. The spread of Stoicism in Europe is attributed to the psychological anxiety in the European world after Alexander’s conquests and before the Christian mission.
Notation
This chapter highlights the importance of notation and the origin of alphabetic letters, emphasizing that the invention of writing letters and numbers was fundamental to recording all human knowledge. It is generally agreed that Arabic and European alphabetic letters have a common source, with Europeans adopting their letters from the Canaanites or Arameans, which evolved from ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic letters. The archaeological discovery of the tablet by Sir Flinders Petrie in Sinai in 1906 as an intermediate model supports this view. The Egyptian hieroglyphic letters are believed to have been transferred through Sinai to its eastern borders, where the Arameans and Canaanites resided, and the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula played a significant role in spreading these letters. The Arabic numerals, borrowed from Indian numerals after Islam, also influenced Europe, known as “Arabic numerals.” The name “zero” remains as derived from Arabic.
Peace and War Industries
This chapter reviews the economic and commercial influences of the Arabs. The Greeks borrowed the system of weights and coins from the Babylonians through the Arameans and Lydians. The Canaanites excelled in navigation and maritime trade, transferring this knowledge to the Greeks, who also benefited from the medical knowledge of ancient civilizations like the Egyptians, along with Canaanite and Babylonian knowledge. The Romans benefited from the military arts of the Carthaginian commander Hannibal, who introduced new war tactics. Thus, Europeans were influenced by the Arabs in matters of doctrine, civilization, and daily living before Europe became a teacher to others. The astronomical knowledge and writing that reached Europeans were tinged with Babylonian influence and transferred through the Arabs.
Origin and Transmission
Al-Akkad discusses the issue of originality and transmission in civilizations, asserting that all civilizations created and transmitted knowledge. He criticizes the European belief that characterizes Arab civilization as merely a transmitter. He emphasizes that Arabs benefited from previous civilizations and innovated in various fields, and that other civilizations, including the Greek, relied on both transmission and creation. Arab scholars and philosophers like Ibn al-Haytham, al-Kindi, and al-Fazari made significant contributions. Islam served as a driving force for a flourishing Arab civilization, and without this Arab genius, the preservation and transmission of ancient civilizations’ heritage to the modern age would not have been possible.
Medicine and Sciences
Al-Akkad praises the advancement of ancient Egyptian medicine and the transfer of medical knowledge from the Egyptians to the Greeks. He also highlights the significant role of the medical school in Jundishapur in developing and exchanging medical knowledge among the Persians, Romans, and Syriacs. Arabs abandoned medicine based on magic and priesthood after Islam, adopting natural and experimental medicine, such as the work of al-Harith ibn Kalda, a prominent pre-Islamic and Islamic Arab physician. He discusses the medical renaissance under the Islamic state, with many prominent Christian and Muslim doctors, the proliferation of hospitals, and the importance of translation and authorship in medicine. Europeans translated and benefited from Arabic medical books for centuries, such as the works of Ibn Sina and al-Razi. Arabs also influenced the field of chemistry, notably through the works of Jabir ibn Hayyan, which significantly contributed to the development of this science in Europe.
Geography, Astronomy, and Mathematics
This chapter emphasizes the significant influence of Arabs on European civilization in the fields of geography, astronomy, and mathematics. It begins with Ptolemy, who benefited from the knowledge of the Egyptians and Canaanites, and how Arabs contributed to the spread of geography in Europe through Arabic translations that modified and added to his works. Al-Akkad mentions prominent Muslim scholars like al-Biruni and al-Idrisi and their inventions, such as the pendulum and magnetic needle in navigation, acknowledged by scientists like Gustave Le Bon. He highlights Muslim geographers in Andalusia, such as al-Sharif al-Idrisi, who served the King of Sicily. Al-Akkad discusses the Arab theories on the earth’s roundness and their impact on Columbus’s discovery of the New World, as Arabs spread the idea of a spherical earth in their geographical books, paving the way for European exploration voyages. The possibility of Arabs reaching the Americas before Columbus remains, despite the lack of conclusive evidence.
Literature
This chapter addresses the influence of Arabic literature on European literature. Al-Akkad cites quotes from Mackail’s lectures, stating that Europe owes its metaphorical and enthusiastic tendencies to the Arabs. He also emphasizes the influence of Arabic literature through linguistic interactions between Muslims and European poets, highlighting the clear impact of Andalusian Arabic literature on European tastes, ideas, and styles. This influence is evident in the works of European literary geniuses like Boccaccio, Dante, Petrarch, Chaucer, and Cervantes, who drew inspiration from “One Thousand and One Nights” and Arab-Islamic culture. Al-Akkad notes the impact of Arabic literature in reviving modern European languages and the decline of Latin and Greek. This influence is reflected in the poetry of the Troubadour inspired by Andalusian zajal, and the themes of enthusiasm and chivalry in European literature stemmed from the practical example set by Arab and Muslim conquerors.
Fine Arts
This chapter discusses Arab influence in the field of fine arts, particularly painting and sculpture. Al-Akkad explains that sculpturing was not widespread among Arabs due to religious prohibition and the nomadic lifestyle that did not provide an environment for its development. In painting, he clarifies that the lack of this art among Arabs was not due to a lack of artistic sensibility but because they expressed their emotions in other ways, such as poetry and songs. The close relationship between Arabs and animals demonstrates their strong artistic sense, although they expressed their emotions in ways consistent with their environment and culture. He discusses the development of Arab architecture, noting that the Arab architectural style was influenced by Byzantine and Persian methods but had its unique character. Arabs were not detached from the art of painting, as decorations and engravings found their way into architecture and other art forms. Arab art influenced Europe, especially after the Crusades.
Music
Al-Akkad highlights the fundamental difference between Arab music and modern European music from the eighteenth century to the present. This difference is attributed to the developments in European music, where Greek and Roman music focused on sensual songs and dance, similar to Arab music. With the evolution of European music and the emergence of “harmony,” or the coordination of different melodies, music became more complex and diverse, diverging from Eastern music. Al-Akkad points out that contemporary European music requires training and education to understand its tones and layers. This complexity results from the expansion of the sciences of sound and the composition of musical instruments, as well as the influence of religious and spiritual music. Despite this divergence, Arabs maintained their influence on the development of European music through Andalusia, where sensual music blended with worship music. Europeans learned a great deal from Arabs in this field, and some European musical instruments still bear Arabic names, such as the “Lute” and “Naker.”
Philosophy and Religion
In this chapter, al-Akkad refutes the common idea that Eastern nations sought knowledge only for practical benefits. He argues that objective conditions, such as the power of priesthood and authority, hindered scientific research. Greek philosophers excelled in philosophical studies due to an environment free from strong priesthood and despotic states. They were also influenced by Eastern civilizations. Muslim philosophers, including those from Andalusia, significantly impacted European thought. Al-Akkad emphasizes that differences in philosophical inquiry among nations stem from environmental and historical circumstances. He also discusses the critiques and contributions Muslim philosophers made to Greek philosophies, highlighting that European philosophers were greatly influenced by Muslim thought, leading to significant transformations in European intellectual history, including new trends in religious and social reforms.
Civilization Conditions
This chapter outlines the influence of Arab civilization on European life through words borrowed from Arabic into European languages. These words reflect the changes in European society due to Arab practices and knowledge. Al-Akkad points out the transfer of daily living terms such as “cotton,” “silk,” and “musk,” showing the profound influence of Arab living on various aspects of European life. He discusses the role of Andalusia as a cultural bridge between the Arab world and Europe, noting that the Arab presence in Andalusia had the greatest impact on European lifestyle during Andalusia’s golden age. Spanish historians, like Blasco Ibáñez, acknowledge that the European Renaissance owes much to Andalusian Arab civilization, which preceded the Italian Renaissance and provided a new model for practical life, industry, and commerce, deeply affecting European thought and social and political relationships.
State and System
In this chapter, al-Akkad discusses the role of Islamic civilization in influencing the movement to separate state and church in Europe. He notes that while Islam unifies religious and political authority, Europeans were inspired by Muslims to establish the independence of royal rule from religious control. From the 11th century, Europe witnessed rebellions against church authority, especially after interactions with Islamic states during the Crusades and periods of stability in Andalusia. This led European kings to imitate their Muslim counterparts in seeking independence from the church. Europeans also benefited from the Islamic system in international relations and peace treaties, with the integrity of Muslim leaders like Saladin leaving a strong impression on Europeans. This model of mutual respect and fair treatment contributed to the development of modern state concepts and international relations in Europe.
The Impact of Modern Europe on the Arab Renaissance
Paying Debts
This chapter explores the cultural exchanges between East and West through the ages. Initially, Europe resisted adopting Arab civilization, but over time, the situation reversed, with the East becoming eager to imitate everything European and foreign, ignoring what was Eastern and authentic. Al-Akkad calls this phenomenon “paying debts,” where civilizations influence each other over time. This eagerness for everything new was not always based on discernment but resulted from poor judgment and choice. Initially, the measure of freedom in the East was to revolt against everything old simply because it was old and adopt everything new because it was new. Over time, a group of Easterners emerged capable of distinguishing between what was good from both the old and the new, reflecting maturity and independence in thought and choice. This evolution signifies a shift towards choosing the best regardless of its source, heralding a new era of balanced progress between giving and taking among civilizations.
Society and Politics
Al-Akkad discusses the impact of European civilization on Eastern societies in various aspects, especially family, social customs, and class relations. For example, modern education and women’s liberation played significant roles in reducing the desire for polygamy due to changes in marital aspirations and the complexities of living. Western customs, such as family celebrations previously unknown in Eastern societies, like marriage anniversaries and birthdays, also spread, leading to notable changes in social behavior. Al-Akkad also examines the impact of European civilization on social classes in the East, explaining that Europe prevented the emergence of large industries in these regions, hindering the renewal of social classes. Despite political changes, economic relations between classes remained almost unchanged. However, the spread of education strengthened the middle class, which became influential in national politics, while the poor gradually relied on it to demand their rights. Therefore, the Arab awakening was a natural result of interaction between East and West, with Arab movements since the 19th century seeking independence and Arab unity, such as the movement of Sheikh Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in Najd and Ibrahim Pasha in Egypt. Despite European resistance to these movements, they eventually had to deal with the new reality imposed by this Arab awakening.
Parliamentary Government
Al-Akkad reviews the role of Islam in establishing parliamentary government and shura (consultation) as the basis of governance. The Quran forbids absolute rule and mandates consultation, as Allah says, “And consult them in the matter.” (3:159) This consultation was ahead of its time, as human societies were not ready to accept it until a thousand years after the Islamic call. The parliamentary system in Europe developed over time, starting from the senates in Rome and Athens, but these systems did not express basic human rights; they were special measures for managing certain affairs. In contrast, Islamic civilization presented shura as a creed and ethics before it became a realistic system in the West. Shura and parliamentary governance were not strange to Eastern societies due to the Islamic values they adopted, despite the negative effects of colonialism and foreign interests that hindered the development of these systems in the East. However, they were more prepared to accept the parliamentary system more smoothly than was the case in the West.
Nationalism
Al-Akkad discusses the concept of nationalism and its evolution from an instinctive love of the homeland to a set of rights and spiritual and cultural connections recognized by humanity in the modern era after the 18th century. Modern nationalism was not possible before significant social developments, such as the end of the feudal era and the development of religious universities, which constrained the broader sense of nationalism. People’s allegiance to multiple feuds and their dependence on different leaders hindered the emergence of modern nationalism, as loyalty to feudal lords outweighed loyalty to the nation. With the development of absolute royal authority and the erosion of feudal power, the idea of nationalism began to take shape, with the nation becoming the source of sovereignty and kings turning into servants of the nation. However, the Arab nation was qualified to develop this concept due to Islamic teachings that proclaim the earth belongs to Allah. Historical circumstances delayed the development of nationalism in its modern sense until Eastern nations were influenced by the French Revolution. Therefore, the modern concept of nationalism is a product of contemporary civilization, not solely of European thought, as it developed through specific historical stages, with Europe being the arena where these developments were manifested, and Eastern nations adopting this concept with discernment and choice.
Religious Movements
Al-Akkad explores how Easterners learned from Europeans to resist them using their own methods. Easterners were aware of their backwardness but did not understand the real reasons for it, often resorting to superstition and magic instead of proper medicine. With repeated defeats by Europeans, they realized the necessity of learning from their sciences and industries, leading to a renaissance in scientific and political thought in the East. Various religious movements emerged in the East as a result of interaction with European civilization, such as the movement of Ghulam Ahmad al-Qadiyani in India, which attempted to reconcile Islam and Christianity, and the reform movement in Egypt led by Sheikh Muhammad Abduh, which sought to modernize religious understanding in line with contemporary times. All these movements reflect the influence of local environments and contact with European civilization on religious thought in the East.
Morals and Customs
Al-Akkad tackles the influence of European civilization on Eastern morals and customs after the contact between the two cultures. The hereditary and social factors that shape morals do not transfer quickly between nations, but Easterners imitated Europeans in various aspects of daily life, adopting their clothing and leisure customs. These changes led to the adoption of new customs, some positive, like an increased interest in sports, and others negative, like mixed-gender dancing. Al-Akkad notes that corruption was not foreign to the East, but it took on a new character due to European civilization, which encouraged skepticism of Eastern social traditions. Nevertheless, al-Akkad believes these changes, despite their difficulties, could be a prelude to a new renaissance in morals and values in the East, and possibly in the West as well.
Literature and Art
In this chapter, al-Akkad previews the evolution of literature and art in the Arab world under the influence of European civilization. Translation in ancient times was weak and filled with errors, but the modern renaissance improved its quality, renewing literary styles, refining expressions, and enhancing Arab literary taste, which expanded the fields of writing and authorship. This led to the emergence of new groups of writers specializing in various fields. Modern poetry also saw significant transformations, with traditional quotations decreasing and original innovations and meanings increasing. This transformation extended to other arts, such as theater, music, and painting, making these arts comparable in quality to their European counterparts.
Journalism
Al-Akkad addresses the development of journalism as a model of political advocacy in Arab civilization. The Arabs in the Umayyad and Abbasid states, followed by the Fatimids, excelled in the art of organized advocacy, which relied on philosophy and mysticism to attract diverse minds. This type of advocacy was akin to organized campaigns of persuasion and conviction to gain religious and political legitimacy. With the advancement of printing and communication techniques and the spread of education, journalism transferred from Europe to the Arab world, bringing some benefits like spreading knowledge and national calls, as well as negatives like preoccupation with trivial issues and the pursuit of sensationalism.
Summary
In the final chapter of the book, al-Akkad talks about the impact of European civilization on the Eastern world, focusing on the differences between material and intellectual influences. He emphasizes that the sciences and industries transferred from Europe did not cause a radical change in the Eastern spirit, as they remain within the realm of intellectual and mechanical knowledge. The deeper influence, however, came through the European way of life and philosophical doctrines such as the theory of evolution and the materialistic interpretation of history. These affected some individuals, but did not touch the spiritual foundations of the East. Al-Akkad concludes that human civilization is a shared heritage among nations, and every nation with a history has both contributed to and received from that heritage. Allah says, “And if it were not for Allah checking [some] people by means of others, the earth would have been corrupted, but Allah is full of bounty to the worlds.” (2:251)
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