Category Archives: Science and Health

Here’s Why Legal Documents Are So Hard to Understand, According to Science

Legal documents are notoriously difficult to parse, and a new study attempts to explain why: the so-called legalese that dominates this kind of writing is apparently adopted to convey a sense of knowledge and authority.

Legalese is now so well embedded in our collective thinking that even non-lawyers use it, as shown by a team of researchers from the University of Chicago Law School, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and the University of Melbourne in Australia.

In the same way that magic spells are often invoked in a rather grand and verbose style – to give them that extra air of importance – people also tend to apply the same sort of ratcheting up of complexity when it comes to legal documents, the study found.

“People seem to understand that there’s an implicit rule that this is how laws should sound, and they write them that way,” says cognitive scientist Edward Gibson, from MIT.

Previous research had shown that long definitions in the middle of sentences – known as ‘center-embedding’ – contributed significantly to the complexity of legal documents. Here the team wanted to explore the possible reasons for this center-embedding.

Gibson and his colleagues ran experiments in which 286 non-lawyer volunteers were asked to compose different types of writing: texts describing laws, stories about crimes involving those laws, and explanations of the laws to people from other countries.

The results showed center-embedding was common in law writing, whether or not the participants were asked to go back and edit their drafts later – suggesting that it’s not rounds of revisions that make legal documents complicated.

More plain language and less center-embedding were noticeable in the writing that wasn’t describing laws, so this is something that only really appears in legal texts. The next step is to find out the source – and the researchers want to look back into older legal texts to see where this style started.

“In English culture, if you want to write something that’s a magic spell, people know that the way to do that is you put a lot of old-fashioned rhymes in there,” says Gibson. “We think maybe center-embedding is signaling legalese in the same way.”

As far back as the mid-19th century, Dickens was writing about a lawsuit that had “become so complicated, that no man alive knows what it means,” – and there has been little improvement since. That goes against the natural human drive to communicate more effectively and to be better understood.

So essentially, in legal writing, clarity is being sacrificed in an effort to sound more authoritative. The good news is this means there’s a simple solution.

“These results… suggest laws can be effectively simplified without a loss or distortion of communicative content,” the authors write in their paper.

The research team is hoping that the study leads to legal documents becoming more straightforward and accessible. Lawyers themselves don’t like legalese, and the rest of us have even less chance of making sense of it.

“Lawyers also find legalese to be unwieldy and complicated,” says Gibson.

“Lawyers don’t like it, laypeople don’t like it, so the point of this current paper was to try and figure out why they write documents this way.”The research has been published in PNAS.

A Window Into the Body: Stanford Scientists Use Food Dye to Make Skin Temporarily Invisible

Illustration of a human hand as it might appear if the new tissue transparency effect proves effective in humans. Currently, the effect has only been tested with animals in a laboratory setting. Note that dyes may be harmful. Always exercise caution with dyes and do not consume directly, apply to people or animals, or otherwise misuse. Credit: Keyi “Onyx” Li/U.S. National Science Foundation
Using common food dye, researchers make skin and muscle safely and reversibly transparent.
Scientists at Stanford University have developed a groundbreaking technique using food-safe dye to make animal tissues transparent, enhancing the visibility of internal organs. This innovation has potential applications ranging from medical diagnostics to cancer treatment and has shown promising results in both theoretical and practical tests.
Groundbreaking New Imaging Technique Unveiled
Researchers have developed a new way to see organs within a body by rendering overlying tissues transparent to visible light.
The counterintuitive process—a topical application of food-safe dye—was reversible in tests with animal subjects, and may ultimately apply to a wide range of medical diagnostics, from locating injuries to monitoring digestive disorders to identifying cancers.
Stanford University researchers published the research ″Achieving optical transparency in live animals with absorbing molecules″ in the September 6, 2024, issue of Science.
″Looking forward, this technology could make veins more visible for the drawing of blood, make laser-based tattoo removal more straightforward, or assist in the early detection and treatment of cancers,″ said Stanford University assistant professor of materials science and engineering Guosong Hong, a U.S. National Science Foundation CAREER grantee who helped lead this work. ″For example, certain therapies use lasers to eliminate cancerous and precancerous cells, but are limited to areas near the skin’s surface. This technique may be able to improve that light penetration.″
[embedded content]Researchers at Stanford University have developed a way to make skin and other tissues transparent using a simple food dye, a reversible technique with potential for revolutionizing internal medicine. In this clip, thin slices of chicken breast become transparent on exposure to the dye FD & C Yellow 5. Credit: U.S. National Science Foundation
An Illuminating Solution
To master the new technique, the researchers developed a way to predict how light interacts with dyed biological tissues.
Those predictions required a deep understanding of light scattering, as well as the process of refraction, where light changes speed and bends as it travels from one material into another.
Scattering is the reason we cannot see through our body: Fats, fluids within cells, proteins, and other materials each have a different refractive index, a property that dictates how significantly an incoming light wave will bend.
In most tissues, those materials are closely compacted together, so the varied refractive indices cause light to scatter as it passes through. It is the scattering effect that our eyes interpret as opaque, colored, biological materials.
The researchers realized if they wanted to make biological material transparent, they had to find a way to match the different refractive indices so light could travel through unimpeded.
Close-up macro image of a gloved hand scooping undissolved yellow #5 dye from a glass jar. Credit: Matthew Christiansen/U.S. National Science Foundation
Breakthrough With Tartrazine
Building upon fundamental insights from the field of optics, the researchers realized dyes that are the most effective at absorbing light can also be highly effective at directing light uniformly through a wide range of refractive indices.
One dye the researchers predicted would be particularly effective was tartrazine, the food dye more commonly known as FD & C Yellow 5. It turns out, they were correct: When dissolved into water and absorbed into tissues, tartrazine molecules are perfectly structured to match refractive indices and prevent light from scattering, resulting in transparency.
Close-up macro image of syringe injected a solution of yellow #5 dye into white container filled with water. Credit: Matthew Christiansen/U.S. National Science Foundation
From Theory to Practice
The researchers first tested their predictions with thin slices of chicken breast. As tartrazine concentrations increased, the refractive index of the fluid within the muscle cells rose until it matched the refractive index of the muscle proteins – the slice became transparent.
Then, the researchers gently rubbed a temporary tartrazine solution on mice. First, they applied the solution to the scalp, rendering the skin transparent to reveal blood vessels crisscrossing the brain. Next, they applied the solution to the abdomen, which faded within minutes to show contractions of the intestine and movements caused by heartbeats and breathing.
The technique resolved features at the scale of microns, and even enhanced microscope observations. When the dye was rinsed off, the tissues quickly returned to normal opacity. The tartrazine did not appear to have long-term effects, and any excess was excreted in waste within 48 hours.
The researchers suspect that injecting the dye should lead to even deeper views within organisms, with implications for both biology and medicine.
Illustration of skin tissues as they normally appear, with photons scattering as they interact with surrounding materials. Credit: Keyi “Onyx” Li/U.S. National Science Foundation
Illustration of skin tissues rendered transparent following saturation by FD & C Yellow 5, including the paths of photons reflecting off un-dyed tissues. Credit: Keyi “Onyx” Li/U.S. National Science Foundation
Illustration of skin tissues rendered transparent following saturation by FD & C Yellow 5. Credit: Keyi “Onyx” Li/U.S. National Science Foundation
Old Formulas Yield New Window Into Medicine
Supported by a range of federal and private grants, the project began as an investigation into how microwave radiation interacts with biological tissues.
In exploring optics textbooks from the 1970s and 1980s, the researchers found two key concepts: mathematical equations called Kramers-Kronig relations and a phenomenon called Lorentz oscillation, where electrons and atoms resonate within molecules as photons pass through.
Well studied for more than a century, yet not applied to medicine in this way, the tools proved ideal for predicting how a given dye can raise the refractive index of biological fluids to perfectly match surrounding fats and proteins.
Graduate researcher Nick Rommelfanger, working under an NSF Graduate Research Fellowship, was one of the first to realize that the same modifications that make materials transparent to microwaves could be tailored to impact the visible spectrum, with potential applications in medicine.
[embedded content]Animation depicting the tissue transparency effect and how it might appear if tested with humans in the future. The latter part of the animation shows how photons interact with tissues at the cellular level, both with and without FD & C Yellow 5 saturation. Credit: Keyi “Onyx” Li/U.S. National Science Foundation
Harnessing Old Equipment for New Discoveries
Transitioning from theory to experimentation, postdoctoral researcher Zihao Ou—the study’s lead author—ordered a number of strong dyes and began the process of meticulously evaluating each for ideal optical properties.
Ultimately, the team grew to 21 students, collaborators, and advisors, involving several analytical systems.
One that proved critical was a decades-old ellipsometer nestled among newer equipment at the Stanford Nano Shared Facilities, part of the NSF National Nanotechnology Coordinated Infrastructure (NNCI). The ellipsometer is a tool familiar to semiconductor manufacturing, not biology. However, in a possible first for medicine, the researchers realized it was perfect to predict the optical properties of their target dyes.
Time-lapse images of blood vessels in the brain just beneath the skull of a sedated mouse, revealed without any surgery, incisions, or damaging the mouse’s bone or skin. By reversibly dyeing the tissues with FD & C Yellow 5 and using a technique called laser speckle contrast imaging, Stanford University researchers observed the blood flow within this living brain. Credit: Stanford University/Gail Rupert/NSF
″Advanced research facilities constantly aim to strike the right balance by providing access to basic tools and expertise while making space for newer, larger, and more powerful instrumentation,″ said NSF Program Officer Richard Nash, who oversees the NSF NNCI. ″While a basic workhorse such as an ellipsometer would rarely make headlines, it nevertheless can play a crucial role when deployed for atypical uses like the case here. Open access to such instrumentation is foundational for making groundbreaking discoveries, as those instruments can be deployed in new ways to generate fundamental insights about scientific phenomena.″
With methods grounded in fundamental physics, the researchers hope their approach will launch a new field of study matching dyes to biological tissues based on optical properties, potentially leading to a wide range of medical applications.
″As an optics person, I’m amazed at how they got so much from exploiting the Kramers-Konig relationship,″ said NSF Program Officer Adam Wax, who has supported Hong’s work. ″Every optics student learns about them, but this team has used the equations to figure out how a strongly absorbing dye can make skin transparent. Using an NSF EAGER grant, Hong was able to step out in a bold new direction, a great example of how fundamental optics knowledge can be used to create new technologies, including in biomedicine.″
Instrumental NSF Support
″NSF′s support played an instrumental role in the success of this work,″ added Hong. ″The NSF CAREER award was my first major funding, and it arrived at a particularly challenging time, during the darkest moments of the pandemic. My lab faced significant difficulties generating data due to the shutdown, and the award was a vital springboard, enabling me to pursue some of our most exciting and innovative projects – including the research that culminated in this Science paper. The flexibility and encouragement from the NSF awards were crucial in keeping me on track and allowed me the freedom to explore new and uncharted territories in my field.″
Please note: The technique described above has not been tested on humans. Dyes may be harmful. Always exercise caution with dyes and do not consume directly, apply to people or animals, or otherwise misuse.
For more on this research:

Reference: “Achieving optical transparency in live animals with absorbing molecules” by Zihao Ou, Yi-Shiou Duh, Nicholas J. Rommelfanger, Carl H. C. Keck, Shan Jiang, Kenneth BrinsonJr, Su Zhao, Elizabeth L. Schmidt, Xiang Wu, Fan Yang, Betty Cai, Han Cui, Wei Qi, Shifu Wu, Adarsh Tantry, Richard Roth, Jun Ding, Xiaoke Chen, Julia A. Kaltschmidt, Mark L. Brongersma and Guosong Hong, 6 September 2024, Science.DOI: 10.1126/science.adm6869
This research was supported by NSF grants NNCI 1542152 (NNCI), CAREER 2045120, EAGER 2217582, and GRFP 1656518. In addition to NSF, funders supporting the Stanford research included the U.S. National Institutes of Health, the U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific Research, the U.S. Army Long Term Health Education and Training program, and a range of private foundations and institutions.

Raw Milk Is Becoming More Popular – but According to Scientists, It’s More Dangerous Than You Think

Consuming raw milk or products made from it poses significant health risks, yet less than half of U.S. adults are aware that raw milk is less safe than pasteurized milk. The Annenberg Public Policy Center’s survey reveals widespread misconceptions about pasteurization’s effectiveness, with only 47% recognizing the safety benefits, and some even questioning pasteurization’s ability to kill harmful bacteria.
Fewer than half of Americans are aware that drinking raw milk is less safe than drinking pasteurized milk.
Drinking raw milk or consuming products made from it carries more risks compared to pasteurized milk. However, according to the latest health survey by the Annenberg Public Policy Center, less than half of U.S. adults are aware that raw milk is less safe than pasteurized milk, and many do not recognize the associated health risks.
The survey finds that 47% percent of U.S. adults know that drinking raw milk is less safe than drinking pasteurized milk, while nearly a quarter (24%) of Americans either think incorrectly that pasteurization is not effective at killing bacteria and viruses in milk products (4%) or are not sure whether this is true (20%).
“It is important that anyone planning to consume raw milk be aware that doing so can make you sick and that pasteurization reduces the risk of milk-borne illnesses,” said Patrick E. Jamieson, director of the Annenberg Health and Risk Communication Institute at the Annenberg Public Policy Center (APPC) of the University of Pennsylvania.
Less than half of those surveyed (47%) say raw milk is less safe to drink than pasteurized milk. From an Annenberg Public Policy Center survey of 1,031 U.S. adults in June 2024. Credit: Annenberg Public Policy Center
APPC’s survey was conducted by SSRS, a market research company, on June 7-10, 2024, as a cross-sectional survey of 1,031 U.S. adults who are part of the SSRS Opinion Panel Omnibus. The margin of error for total respondents is ±3.5 percentage points at the 95% confidence level.
Why consuming raw milk is risky
Milk from animals including cows, sheep, and goats that has not been pasteurized to kill harmful germs is called unpasteurized or raw milk. Unpasteurized dairy products are estimated to “cause 840 times more illnesses and 45 times more hospitalizations than pasteurized products.” The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) says that consuming unpasteurized milk and products made from it “can expose people to germs such as Campylobacter, Cryptosporidium, E. coli, Listeria, Brucella, and Salmonella.”
Heightening these concerns, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reported in an open letter on June 6, 2024, that bird flu has been detected in cow’s milk. Cattle infected with avian influenza “shed the virus in their milk.” Technically known as highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAI) of the H5N1 subtype, the CDC has noted that H5N1 bird flu is “widespread in wild birds worldwide and is causing outbreaks in poultry and U.S. dairy cows.” The presence of H5N1 bird flu was confirmed in cattle in the United States in mid-March 2024. As of June 21, 2024, there had been four human cases of H5N1 in the United States since 2022, three in April and May of 2024 following exposure to cows and one in April 2022 following exposure to poultry. As of mid-June, 95 cattle herds in 12 states were identified as infected.
Less than half of those surveyed (43%) say pasteurization does not destroy nutrients in milk. (The CDC says pasteurized milk offers “the same nutritional benefits without the risks of raw milk consumption.” From an Annenberg Public Policy Center survey of 1,031 U.S. adults in June 2024. Credit: Annenberg Public Policy Center
The FDA says it does not currently know whether the HPAI H5N1 virus can be transmitted to humans through consumption of raw milk and products made from raw milk from infected cows. However, a study conducted in mice concluded that the virus in “untreated milk can infect susceptible animals that consume it” and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) says this suggests that drinking raw milk “may pose a risk of transmission to people.” As of mid-June 2024, the FDA concluded “that the totality of evidence continues to indicate that the commercial milk supply [which is pasteurized] is safe.”
Although the FDA has prohibited the interstate sale of raw milk since 1987, 30 states in the United States allow the sale of raw dairy milk in some form, according to the NIH. While an FDA food safety report in 2016 said just 4.4% of U.S. adults reported consuming raw milk at least once in the past year, raw milk sales have been increasing, according to the Associated Press, which reports that weekly sales of raw milk from late March to mid-May grew from 21% to as much as 65% over the same period last year.
What people know about the risks of raw milk and benefits of pasteurization
The CDC notes that “pasteurization is crucial for milk safety, killing harmful germs that can cause illness” and the NIH says “dairy milk purchased in the grocery store has been pasteurized – heated to a level high enough and long enough to kill most viruses or bacteria in the milk.”
Yet in the APPC survey, over half of the respondents (54%) either think drinking raw milk is safer (9%), just as safe (15%), or are unsure (30%) whether it is more or less safe than drinking pasteurized milk. Nearly a quarter of those surveyed question the effectiveness of pasteurization at killing bacteria and viruses in untreated milk – 20% are unsure whether it is effective and 4% incorrectly assert that it is not effective.
Who holds correct and mistaken beliefs about raw milk?
An analysis of survey data shows that adults who are 65 and older, college educated, or who identify with the Democratic Party are more likely to understand the benefits of pasteurization and to believe that pasteurization does not destroy the nutrients in milk. The survey finds that Democrats are more likely than Republicans to believe that drinking raw milk is less safe than pasteurized milk (57% vs. 37%). People living in an urban environment also are more likely to believe that raw milk is less safe than pasteurized milk than people in a rural environment (49% vs. 32%).
“The difference in views of raw milk that we see between Democrats and Republicans is difficult to disentangle from the difference between rural and urban dwellers,” said Kathleen Hall Jamieson, director of the Annenberg Public Policy Center. “Those in rural areas are both more likely to identify as Republicans and to consume raw milk.”
However, a regression analysis conducted by APPC research analyst Shawn Patterson Jr. shows that both which political party one identifies with and where one lives independently predict an individual’s beliefs about the safety of raw milk. But the analysis also shows that where one lives does not independently predict beliefs about the effectiveness of pasteurization nor the effect pasteurization has on the nutrients of milk. (See the appendix for regression analysis.)
The nutritional value of pasteurized vs. raw milk
Viral online videos championing the purported benefits of raw milk attracted millions of views between late March, when the presence of bird flu virus was first confirmed in U.S. cattle, and mid-May, according to reports in the Associated Press and Washington Post. Drinking raw milk has been encouraged as well by some political leaders, including presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy Jr., who told the audience at an October 2022 meeting of his Children’s Health Defense that he drinks raw milk exclusively.
Among the arguments advanced in favor of consuming raw milk is that pasteurization destroys valuable nutrients – but the CDC states that pasteurized milk “offers the same nutritional benefits without the risks of raw milk consumption.”
Our survey finds that less than half of Americans (43%) know that pasteurization “does not destroy nutrients in milk,” while 16% believe that it does destroy nutrients and 41% are not sure. Notably, the survey finds that younger people (18- to 29-year-olds) are more likely to believe than older adults (65 and older) that pasteurization destroys the nutrients in milk (25% vs. 5%) and Republicans are much more likely to believe it than Democrats (23% vs. 8%). Whether one lives in an urban vs. rural setting is not significantly different in this belief.
APPC’s survey
This study was conducted for APPC by SSRS, on its Opinion Panel Omnibus platform. The SSRS Opinion Panel Omnibus is a national, twice-per-month, probability-based survey. Data collection was conducted from June 7–10, 2024 among a sample of 1,031 respondents. The survey was conducted via web (n=1,001) and telephone (n=30) and administered in English (n=1,005) and Spanish (n=26). The margin of error for total respondents is +/-3.5 percentage points at the 95% confidence level. All SSRS Opinion Panel Omnibus data are weighted to represent the target population of U.S. adults ages 18 or older.
In addition to Patrick Jamieson, Kathleen Hall Jamieson, and Shawn Patterson Jr., APPC’s survey team includes Ken Winneg, managing director of survey research.
Download the topline, appendix, and methodology statements.

This is the worst song to play during sex, according to science — and it’s a song about sex

To set the mood in the bedroom, you’ll need bangers on queue — but most people are choosing the wrong tunes, researchers say.

Experts analyzed current pop playlists on Spotify with keywords like “romance,” “sexy,” “sensual” and “intimate” to determine which strictly sensual songs meet the desired tempo for sex, which has been determined by science to be 119 beats per minute.

Turns out, we’re way off the mark, according to the pros at Dating Scout, who have revealed some of the worst offenders — a long list of accidentally unsexy shame topped off by (ironically) Jeremih’s “Birthday Sex.”

Past research has determined the ideal tempo for music during sex as 119 BPM. Dmitrii Kotin – stock.adobe.com

The tune from the R&B crooner, registering at 60 BPM, was ranked as the wrongest song to be playing while trying to do the deed, despite it appearing in approximately 121 playlists.

Other popular tracks like “I Wanna Be Yours” by the Arctic Monkeys and “Get You (ft. Kali Uchis)” by Daniel Caesar also ranked poorly.

Explore More

Multiple songs by The Weeknd were discovered to have low BPMs, such as “High for This.”

Despite the sexually charged lyrics, the tune has a tempo of 75 BPM — making it ineligible according to the pros, who were disheartened to find it on 146 boudoir-ready playlists, 31 of which had the word “sex” in the title, per the study.

Despite the sexually charged lyrics and meaning behind the track, “Birthday Sex” by Jeremih finished last — in terms of best sex songs. Youtube

The best song to turn on in the bedroom is a Post Malone hit. Nomad_Soul – stock.adobe.com

Rihanna also had multiple tracks that were deemed unsuitable for the bedroom, like “Needed Me” and “Sex With Me.”

Researchers also analyzed the best songs in the Billboard Hot 100 to have sex to — and a tune by Post Malone came out on top.

The track, “Pour Me A Drink (ft. Blake Shelton),” has a tempo of 119 BPM, making it the ideal song for knocking boots. Meanwhile, chart-topping hits like “misses” by Dominic Fike, with a tempo of 119.9 BPM, and “Brand New Dance” by Eminem, with a tempo of 120 BPM, were runner-ups.

Past research has suggested the best songs to turn on when you want to last longer in the bedroom, with hip-hop lovers averaging a time of 31.5 minutes.

How Scientists Are Turning Mosquito Spit Into a Weapon Against the West Nile Virus and Other Deadly Diseases

Extracting mosquito saliva is challenging but essential for studying how mosquitoes transmit diseases. Anita Saraf at the University of Kansas analyzes these saliva samples using advanced proteomics, funded by a USDA grant, to investigate changes in the saliva’s proteins after virus infection, potentially aiding in vaccine development.
Anita Saraf investigates mosquito saliva to understand how viruses like dengue and West Nile are transmitted, using mass spectrometry to identify potential targets for vaccines and treatments.
You might guess it’d be tough to extract saliva from a mosquito. And you’d be correct. Yet, because mosquitos spread disease via saliva, it’s critical to sample and study.
But Anita Saraf doesn’t collect mosquito spit herself — it gets delivered so she can discover its scientific secrets.
Saraf is the director of the Mass Spectrometry & Analytical Proteomics Laboratory at the University of Kansas, where she uses shotgun proteomics to analyze biological samples — basic science that underpins many drug therapies.
“Collecting saliva from these mosquitoes is challenging due to the small sample size, which is a common limitation in such experiments,” she said. “Our collaborators with the USDA Agricultural Research Service put the mouth of the mosquitoes into a tube, then stimulate salivation and collect the saliva.”
A microscopic view of saliva collection from a noninfectious female mosquito. Credit: NBAF Communications
Now, with a new two-year grant of $250,000 per year from the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility, Saraf currently is analyzing these samples of noninfectious mosquito saliva in the fight against “arboviruses” — the term for viruses spread by arthropods like mosquitoes.
These include West Nile, yellow fever, dengue fever, Japanese encephalitis, and other viruses that can harm or kill people, animals, and plants. The USDA has an interest in veterinary applications for the findings, but Saraf’s work could underpin therapies for people as well.
“The USDA wants to study how the virus affects the immune system and changes at the molecular level, particularly the proteome of mosquito saliva,” Saraf said. “When a virus infects a mosquito, it alters the proteins and other basic components of the mosquito, similar to how malaria affects its human host as it progresses through different stages.”
Proteomics Analysis Techniques
Saraf’s proteomics analysis of the saliva succeeds because of using very efficient sample processing methods in tandem with shotgun analysis. This approach is effective with very low volumes or amounts of sample like, for instance, hard-to-obtain mosquito spit.
“At our mass spectrometry core at KU, we use shotgun proteomics, nanoscale liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry, or nLC-MS, which requires only a minimal amount of protein in the nano-gram range, making it ideal for these types of biological samples,” Saraf said. “The sensitivity of our setup is crucial because, without it, we would need much larger protein quantities. Once we receive the saliva samples, we handle all the sample processing, preparation, and digestion to make them ready for mass-spectrometry analysis. We have the latest equipment and a special setup, which gives us high sensitivity, putting us at the forefront of this research.”
The data is analyzed at KU mass spectrometry core to form a robust understanding of how the molecular properties of mosquito saliva can change under different conditions.
“After data collection, the analysis requires extensive post-processing, including interpretation and comparison, for which I have over 24 years of experience,” Saraf said. “This is how we established a collaboration with USDA.”
According to the KU researcher, her lab’s shotgun approach of analyzing proteomes is robust and more sensitive than other methods, affording much more detailed time-course studies.
“We plan to study these changes under different conditions, including environmental variations in the mosquito after virus infection,” she said. “The focus is on the mosquitos’ saliva, which is critical because, like with the parasite (Plasmodium) that causes malaria, arboviruses are transmitted through the saliva when the mosquito bites.”
Saraf and her team also will analyze saliva from a control group of mosquitoes not infected by the virus — but kept under the same feeding conditions and infection duration as the test group. The end goal is to identify specific proteins of interest for future host-vector-virus interaction studies, which could become potential targets for drug therapies.
Future Directions and Implications
To date, Saraf’s team has worked with uninfected mosquitoes to establish baseline data. Once inactivation protocols are approved and authorized, the work will include samples from Biosafety Level 2 (BSL-2) arbovirus-infected mosquitoes.
“We’ll identify differences and changes at the proteome level by comparing the control and infected samples at different stages,” the KU researcher said. “The goal is to determine the protein changes that occur, as these can potentially serve as candidates for vaccine development. We’ll first need to select candidates, which is why we are using controls under the same conditions without infection. We must carefully load equal amounts of protein from both to ensure accurate comparisons — essentially, we’ll be able to compare ‘apples to apples.’”
Saraf’s work product is a list of the protein changes, both qualitative and quantitative, to strengthen the evidence available to fellow researchers and drug developers.
“Last time, our collaborators at USDA found the list very interesting, and it aligned with what has been reported in the literature,” she said. “Selecting candidates for further study will be the goal.”
The study was funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

The Science Behind NMN: Exploring the Potential Benefits of Nicotinamide Mononucleotide

The quest for longevity and healthier aging has led scientists to explore the molecular foundations of aging. Nicotinamide Mononucleotide (NMN), a compound that plays a pivotal role in cellular health and metabolism, has become a focus of this quest. As the precursor to the critical coenzyme NAD+, NMN is thought to replenish cellular energy and delay age-related decline. In this article, we delve into what makes this molecule compelling, not just to scientists but also those seeking to maintain their vitality. Keep reading to uncover the intricate science of NMN, NMN benefits, and its potential implications for the future of health and wellness.
(Credit: Intelligent Living)
Understanding the Role of NMN in Cellular Health
Nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) is more than a mere buzzword in the realm of anti-aging research. It is a naturally occurring compound that acts as a precursor to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), which is essential for a variety of cellular processes. These processes range from DNA repair to energy production, highlighting the centrality of NMN in maintaining cellular integrity.
The degradation of NAD+ as we age corresponds with a host of age-related conditions, which has driven interest in NMN as a product to bolster NAD+ levels. By shoring up NAD+, NMN supports the cellular machinery that tends to wear down over time. This has positioned NMN as a potential fortress guarding against the onslaught of aging at the cellular frontier.
Moreover, NMN stands out due to its bioavailability and the body’s ability to convert it efficiently into NAD+. Researchers have shown that NMN can be absorbed and utilized by cells without requiring complex transformations, which means it can quickly go to work within our cells. This efficiency is key in the discussion surrounding NMN products and their role in cellular health.
As trials and studies progress, the impact of NMN on biological markers of aging continues to unearth new understanding. A focus on cell vitality and the mechanisms of age-related decline illustrates NMN’s promise in the fight against the inevitable wear and tear of time.

Evaluating the Evidence: NMN in Clinical Research
Clinical research on NMN is a rapidly evolving landscape, with studies ranging from animal models to human clinical trials. The early evidence for benefits sprouted from research in mice, which revealed promising impacts on age-related decline. These studies have been a springboard into broader implications for humans, stimulating excitement about NMN’s translational potential.
However, moving from mouse models to human biology introduces complexity. Human trials conducted thus far have been limited but are necessary to discern NMN’s true potential in our unique physiology. Dose, frequency, and form of administration are among the variables under scrutiny to ensure both efficacy and safety.
Remarkably, some studies have shown that NMN can improve markers of metabolic health, such as insulin sensitivity, in older adults, a promising sign given the prevalence of metabolic disorders with aging. Still, these conclusions are preliminary, and ongoing trials continue to build upon our understanding of NMN’s effects.
(Credit: Intelligent Living)
How NMN Supports NAD+ Production and Longevity
The relationship between NMN and NAD+ is at the heart of the molecule’s claim to fame. NAD+ is vital for the transfer of energy from nutrients to the cell’s powerhouses, the mitochondria. Without adequate NAD+, our cells struggle to generate the energy necessary for survival, let alone optimal function. The replenishment of NAD+ through NMN products has the potential to re-energize flagging cells.
Beneficial as it is, NAD+ levels inevitably decline with age, leading to metabolic and mitochondrial dysfunction. This is where NMN steps in, acting as a kind of cellular fuel injector. By adding NMN, we may be able to boost NAD+ levels, countering the natural decline and possibly extending cellular—and, by extension, organismal—healthspan.
Longevity research often circles back to the concept of healthspan, or the period of life spent in good health, rather than just lifespan. NMN’s role in promoting NAD+ production has made it a key molecule of interest for scientists aiming to enhance human healthspan. It’s not about living forever but living healthier for longer, and NMN could be part of that equation.
Overall, NMN stands at the vanguard of longevity research, a compound enveloped in both potential and intrigue. As the scientific community continues to unravel its mysteries, NMN could very well be at the forefront of a new era in health and medicine, one that elegantly intertwines the pursuit of longevity with the grace of aging well.
(Credit: Intelligent Living)
The Future of NMN: Embracing Potential and Possibilities
As we conclude our exploration into the science behind Nicotinamide Mononucleotide (NMN), it becomes clear that this promising compound may redefine our understanding of aging and wellness. The intricate functions of NMN in cellular health, its encouraging early clinical research, and its pivotal role in boosting NAD+ levels underscore a future where age-related decline may not be an unavoidable fate but rather an area ripe for intervention.
The excitement surrounding NMN stems from its potential to extend healthspan and its ability to empower individuals. If the ongoing research validates the profound claims surrounding NMN, we might witness a paradigm shift in the way we approach not only longevity but our overall lifestyle choices as we grow older.
Moreover, the implications of NMN extend beyond individual health; they ripple out into public health discussions, healthcare economics, and societal attitudes toward aging. Our growing understanding of cellular health is poised to spark new innovations, encouraging a wellness-oriented approach that prioritizes vitality instead of simply avoiding illness.
Thus, as we stand at the intersection of science and daily life, it’s crucial to remain informed and engaged. The journey into the potential benefits of NMN is just beginning, and with each study, we are carving pathways toward healthier futures. As scientific inquiry continues to shed light on this remarkable compound, we must remain open-minded, well-researched, and proactive about how we leverage these findings in our everyday lives. After all, in the pursuit of health and longevity, each step taken in knowledge and mindfulness can lead us closer to the vitality we seek.

Putin’s Search for Immortality – Pushes Scientists to Stop Aging Process

In early 2024 Russian President Vladimir Putin, who turns 72 in October, demanded a “national project” to “preserve the health” of the country. A few months later Deputy Prime Minister Tatyana Golikova announced the “New Health Preservation Technologies” initiative. Research institutes have been ordered to report on efforts to combat cellular ageing and osteoporosis, cognitive and sensory disorders and to boost immune systems. Investment is being made in technology to “prevent cellular ageing, neurotechnology, and other innovations aimed at ensuring longevity.”JOIN US ON TELEGRAMFollow our coverage of the war on the @Kyivpost_official. Other research focuses on three-dimensional bioprinting intended to enable replacement organs and tissue to be “printed.” According to Kommersant, Moscow has invested more than 57 million rubles ($633,000) into bioprinting and related technologies in the last two years.Advertisement The ultimate goal of printing fully functional human organs is still a long way off. Currently, medical 3D printing is limited to “non-living” implants and orthopedic devices with tissue production limited to simple cell research activity. The Russian authorities still have high hopes for bioprinting, with Rosatom saying it will have the technology for printing “complex human organs” ready within six years. The independent Russian news site Meduza.io cited a source from a Moscow hospital who said the initiative was based on “the whims of an aging Politburo.”

Other Topics of Interest

Italy PM States ‘Determined’ Support as Zelensky Presses Allies

Zelensky had on Friday addressed the European House-Ambrosetti forum, hours after pressing for more weapons at a meeting of allies at Ramstein Air Base in Germany.

Russian state media says the project will develop new medical technologies that will increase citizens’ lifespans, saving 175,000 lives by 2030. Meduza compares that target with Russia’s military losses from the war in Ukraine that are estimated at 120,000 over the last 30 months. A close ally of Vladimir Putin Mikhail Kovalchuk, who is himself 77, is said to have been pushing Russian scientists with ever more urgency to learn how to stop the aging process. He is a senior member of the Russian Academy of Science and the head of the Kurchatov nuclear research institute and is said to be overseeing a state-backed research program into genetics.Advertisement An unnamed source from the national medical research center said the “big boss,” presumably Putin, had set the task with Kovalchuk ordering scientists to send regular progress reports through him with officials “rushing to implement it in every possible way.” A Russian doctor who received the directive in June said he was astonished at the urgent nature of the task: “They asked us to fast-track all of our proposals … it was the first time I’d seen anything like it. Usually, any national project or federal program is preceded by several meetings involving various specialists and some sort of public discussion.” Another researcher expressed bewilderment at the timing and priority of the project amidst ongoing national challenges: “The whole premise baffled me. Oh sure, let’s work on restoring the health of these old fogies – it’s not like there’s anyone else who needs our attention. Right in the middle of the war, we’re just supposed to drop everything. The level of cynicism is bewildering.”Advertisement Others have raised concerns over the financial feasibility of the research with an unidentified source close to the Kremlin saying: “All the modern research discussed in the national project is quite expensive, developing new drugs costs billions. No single national project can handle that, especially now. I don’t think they will be able to put together anything meaningful quickly.” It’s not just the state that is looking into ways of extending life. Russian billionaire Dmitry Itskov has been funding a project that looks to transfer human consciousness into computers, effectively allowing it to live forever after the human body dies. Itskov has said the first transfer of consciousness will be made by 2035.

Putin’s Search for Immortality – Pushes Scientists to Stop Aging Process

In early 2024 Russian President Vladimir Putin, who turns 72 in October, demanded a “national project” to “preserve the health” of the country. A few months later Deputy Prime Minister Tatyana Golikova announced the “New Health Preservation Technologies” initiative. Research institutes have been ordered to report on efforts to combat cellular ageing and osteoporosis, cognitive and sensory disorders and to boost immune systems. Investment is being made in technology to “prevent cellular ageing, neurotechnology, and other innovations aimed at ensuring longevity.”JOIN US ON TELEGRAMFollow our coverage of the war on the @Kyivpost_official. Other research focuses on three-dimensional bioprinting intended to enable replacement organs and tissue to be “printed.” According to Kommersant, Moscow has invested more than 57 million rubles ($633,000) into bioprinting and related technologies in the last two years.Advertisement The ultimate goal of printing fully functional human organs is still a long way off. Currently, medical 3D printing is limited to “non-living” implants and orthopedic devices with tissue production limited to simple cell research activity. The Russian authorities still have high hopes for bioprinting, with Rosatom saying it will have the technology for printing “complex human organs” ready within six years. The independent Russian news site Meduza.io cited a source from a Moscow hospital who said the initiative was based on “the whims of an aging Politburo.”

Other Topics of Interest

Italy PM States ‘Determined’ Support as Zelensky Presses Allies

Zelensky had on Friday addressed the European House-Ambrosetti forum, hours after pressing for more weapons at a meeting of allies at Ramstein Air Base in Germany.

Russian state media says the project will develop new medical technologies that will increase citizens’ lifespans, saving 175,000 lives by 2030. Meduza compares that target with Russia’s military losses from the war in Ukraine that are estimated at 120,000 over the last 30 months. A close ally of Vladimir Putin Mikhail Kovalchuk, who is himself 77, is said to have been pushing Russian scientists with ever more urgency to learn how to stop the aging process. He is a senior member of the Russian Academy of Science and the head of the Kurchatov nuclear research institute and is said to be overseeing a state-backed research program into genetics.Advertisement An unnamed source from the national medical research center said the “big boss,” presumably Putin, had set the task with Kovalchuk ordering scientists to send regular progress reports through him with officials “rushing to implement it in every possible way.” A Russian doctor who received the directive in June said he was astonished at the urgent nature of the task: “They asked us to fast-track all of our proposals … it was the first time I’d seen anything like it. Usually, any national project or federal program is preceded by several meetings involving various specialists and some sort of public discussion.” Another researcher expressed bewilderment at the timing and priority of the project amidst ongoing national challenges: “The whole premise baffled me. Oh sure, let’s work on restoring the health of these old fogies – it’s not like there’s anyone else who needs our attention. Right in the middle of the war, we’re just supposed to drop everything. The level of cynicism is bewildering.”Advertisement Others have raised concerns over the financial feasibility of the research with an unidentified source close to the Kremlin saying: “All the modern research discussed in the national project is quite expensive, developing new drugs costs billions. No single national project can handle that, especially now. I don’t think they will be able to put together anything meaningful quickly.” It’s not just the state that is looking into ways of extending life. Russian billionaire Dmitry Itskov has been funding a project that looks to transfer human consciousness into computers, effectively allowing it to live forever after the human body dies. Itskov has said the first transfer of consciousness will be made by 2035.

Ex-science teacher at University City High gets 10 years in prison

A former science teacher at University City High School was sentenced on Sept. 5 to 10 years in federal prison after he made arrangements to have sex with a 16-year-old girl, not realizing his words on the phone were being recorded by law enforcement.
In a tan prison uniform, Sean Stevenson, 59, appeared before U.S. District Court Judge Anthony Battaglia. He pleaded guilty in June to attempted enticement of a minor, a felony.
The offense carries a 10-year minimum sentence, and the maximum term is life. Both his attorney, Dana Grimes, and Assistant U.S. Attorney Derek Ko recommended the 10 years.
“Mr. Stevenson’s determination to purchase sex acts from a minor is appalling,” said U.S. Attorney Tara McGrath in a statement afterward.
“Thankfully, he was caught before harming an actual child,” added McGrath. “The sentence imposed today reflects our commitment to protecting the vulnerable from exploitation.”
While Stevenson had no prior record, he was charged in this case with possession of two thumb drives that contained images of underage girls in sexually explicit activity, according to court records. That count was dismissed.
Battaglia ordered Stevenson to pay $12,000 to “four victims” without specifying who they were. The attorneys agreed to the restitution at $3,000 each.
Kelly Thornton, the U.S. Attorney’s press spokesperson, said late Thursday that federal courts have held that minors depicted in sexual abuse materials “are eligible for restitution” and the victims referred to in this case were those in the images in Stevenson’s possession.
“I’m horrified by my actions and happy to participate in programs,” said Stevenson to the judge. “You will never see me again under these circumstances.”
Battaglia replied that this type of case was in a group of “most distasteful of cases” he had handled.
A transcript of Stevenson’s recorded words to a woman he thought was a prostitute shows him seeking a girl under 18 for oral sex without a condom in a “car date,” which was defined as commercial sexual encounters in a vehicle.
Stevenson had asked for “sexy pics” and “the younger the better.” Various terms were used for manual genital stimulation and oral sex, according to court records. Stevenson agreed to pay $140 for oral sex without a condom and a meeting was set for Oct. 24, 2023, with what Stevenson thought would be with a 16-year-old girl.
Instead, Stevenson was arrested, and $140 in cash was seized, along with his cell phone, and car. He has been in custody ever since and received credit for nearly a year behind bars. He taught at University City High for nine years and also worked as a coach.
“A teacher is meant to protect and nurture students, guiding them with care and respect, but instead this individual sought to sexually exploit a school-age girl,” said San Diego Police Chief Scott Wahl.
“The San Diego Police Department remains committed to protecting our youth from the unthinkable,” added Wahl.
“Mr. Stevenson is immensely remorseful for his conduct underpinning this case and has accepted the fact that his life as he knew it, including his career and a significant amount of his freedom, is over,” wrote Grimes, his attorney, in sentencing papers.
“There is no evidence of any inappropriate relationships with any minors in his entire coaching or teaching career,” wrote Grimes. “He is at a low risk of committing a future sex offense.”
The judge ordered Stevenson to register as a sex offender in the county where he will live after he is released. His mother was in the audience. Battaglia received several favorable letters from people who knew Stevenson.
Stevenson graduated from San Diego State University in 1988, received his teaching credential in 1997, and received his master’s degree in biology in 2014 from Point Loma Nazarene University.
“I have a simple message for all those who target children for sex online: If you go after children in California, we’ll go after you,” said Ca. Attorney General Rob Bonta.
“Today’s announcement makes it clear that child sexual exploitation will not be tolerated,” said Bonta.
Stevenson was in contact with a prostitute who was arrested in April 2023, and had texted her about getting in contact with “younger girls I could pay u a premium for.” When the woman suggested an 18-year-old high school girl, Stevenson responded “Not young enough.”
When agents from the San Diego Human Trafficking Task Force examined the woman’s text and phone messages months later, an agent called Stevenson back and they discussed him meeting up with a 16-year-old girl, according to court records.

Ex-science teacher at University City High gets 10 years in prison

A former science teacher at University City High School was sentenced on Sept. 5 to 10 years in federal prison after he made arrangements to have sex with a 16-year-old girl, not realizing his words on the phone were being recorded by law enforcement.
In a tan prison uniform, Sean Stevenson, 59, appeared before U.S. District Court Judge Anthony Battaglia. He pleaded guilty in June to attempted enticement of a minor, a felony.
The offense carries a 10-year minimum sentence, and the maximum term is life. Both his attorney, Dana Grimes, and Assistant U.S. Attorney Derek Ko recommended the 10 years.
“Mr. Stevenson’s determination to purchase sex acts from a minor is appalling,” said U.S. Attorney Tara McGrath in a statement afterward.
“Thankfully, he was caught before harming an actual child,” added McGrath. “The sentence imposed today reflects our commitment to protecting the vulnerable from exploitation.”
While Stevenson had no prior record, he was charged in this case with possession of two thumb drives that contained images of underage girls in sexually explicit activity, according to court records. That count was dismissed.
Battaglia ordered Stevenson to pay $12,000 to “four victims” without specifying who they were. The attorneys agreed to the restitution at $3,000 each.
Kelly Thornton, the U.S. Attorney’s press spokesperson, said late Thursday that federal courts have held that minors depicted in sexual abuse materials “are eligible for restitution” and the victims referred to in this case were those in the images in Stevenson’s possession.
“I’m horrified by my actions and happy to participate in programs,” said Stevenson to the judge. “You will never see me again under these circumstances.”
Battaglia replied that this type of case was in a group of “most distasteful of cases” he had handled.
A transcript of Stevenson’s recorded words to a woman he thought was a prostitute shows him seeking a girl under 18 for oral sex without a condom in a “car date,” which was defined as commercial sexual encounters in a vehicle.
Stevenson had asked for “sexy pics” and “the younger the better.” Various terms were used for manual genital stimulation and oral sex, according to court records. Stevenson agreed to pay $140 for oral sex without a condom and a meeting was set for Oct. 24, 2023, with what Stevenson thought would be with a 16-year-old girl.
Instead, Stevenson was arrested, and $140 in cash was seized, along with his cell phone, and car. He has been in custody ever since and received credit for nearly a year behind bars. He taught at University City High for nine years and also worked as a coach.
“A teacher is meant to protect and nurture students, guiding them with care and respect, but instead this individual sought to sexually exploit a school-age girl,” said San Diego Police Chief Scott Wahl.
“The San Diego Police Department remains committed to protecting our youth from the unthinkable,” added Wahl.
“Mr. Stevenson is immensely remorseful for his conduct underpinning this case and has accepted the fact that his life as he knew it, including his career and a significant amount of his freedom, is over,” wrote Grimes, his attorney, in sentencing papers.
“There is no evidence of any inappropriate relationships with any minors in his entire coaching or teaching career,” wrote Grimes. “He is at a low risk of committing a future sex offense.”
The judge ordered Stevenson to register as a sex offender in the county where he will live after he is released. His mother was in the audience. Battaglia received several favorable letters from people who knew Stevenson.
Stevenson graduated from San Diego State University in 1988, received his teaching credential in 1997, and received his master’s degree in biology in 2014 from Point Loma Nazarene University.
“I have a simple message for all those who target children for sex online: If you go after children in California, we’ll go after you,” said Ca. Attorney General Rob Bonta.
“Today’s announcement makes it clear that child sexual exploitation will not be tolerated,” said Bonta.
Stevenson was in contact with a prostitute who was arrested in April 2023, and had texted her about getting in contact with “younger girls I could pay u a premium for.” When the woman suggested an 18-year-old high school girl, Stevenson responded “Not young enough.”
When agents from the San Diego Human Trafficking Task Force examined the woman’s text and phone messages months later, an agent called Stevenson back and they discussed him meeting up with a 16-year-old girl, according to court records.